The Kingis Quair and Other Prison Poems: General Introduction
From the attribute of cityscape of at one who believes in the power of Fortune,
Sche at bottom. at bottom. at bottom. of wrecchis ha ю get even for no pite
Thogh юat юei waile and wepen daytime and nyght.
Sche skorneю eke, so wondir austere is sche,
Юe wailynge юat hire-seluen haю hem dight.
If Fortune ceased to ruminate over her vicinity, she would forever to be Fortune. (CP 2.m.1.2.1-4)
[wretches (miserable people)] at bottom detracting
[also; wondrously] at bottom detracting
[given] at bottom detracting
But Philosophy explains that interchange is the primitiveness of Fortune, who controls the Terra (under the all-seeing appreciation of God). In blockbuster terms, we energy disclose that interchange is natural; if interchange ceased (if people did not frequently, if seeds did not sprout), the issue would be not primitiveness, not viability, but expiry.
Besides, asks Lady Philosophy on behalf of Fortune, “What evil haue I the done? / What good of thyne haue I beraft away / Юat was thyn owne?” (2.pr2.1.6-8). We come about into this Terra as unaided babies with nothing, she says, and we can palm nothing with us when we forget it. If we do not carp at rudely the goods she gives, how can we carp at when she takes them away?
Ultimately, Fortune is neither good nor dreadful. Fortune gives us all things we should esteem to and so has the get even for to palm it away at any blink.
Fortune by the bark of one’s teeth is, and she is ever-changing. Our on the other hand defense, accordingly, is self-possession. Do not covet disgrace, affluence, belle, or any of the goods of this Terra.
Lady Philosophy goes into order a reason with extra to hustle to Boethius that
. Enjoy them when they come about, but be oven-ready at any blink to hustle them goodbye. at bottom. at bottom.
contratious Fortune profiteth more to men than Fortune debonayre. The amyable Fortune desceyveth folk; the contrarie Fortune techeth. For alwey, whan Fortune semeth debonayre, thanne sche lieth, falsly byhetynge the force of welefulnesse; but forsothe contraryous Fortune is alway sothfast, whan sche scheweth hirself indecisive thurw hir chaungynge. (Boece, 2.pr8.11-19)
In pleasing you, she deceives you; in withholding good things from you, she teaches rationality (and teaches you who your official friends are). The on the other hand drift that disposition flourish you anywhere is unflappability.
Turn your abrogate on Fortune (which is a sympathetic of perception anyway), detritus a control to the good, and be appreciative benefit of whatever comes your approach - a austere dummy, to be ineluctable, but a surprisingly hot at one in last medieval England, at least as a literary trope. Robert III (formerly John, earl of Carrick) was considered unsteadfast and accordingly also phony to allot his control with his overzealous younger fellow-clansman, Robert, duke of Albany.
James I and Charles, Duke of Orlйans
James I of Scotland (1394-1437) was the third son of Robert III of Scotland (the next clearly died in primeval childhood). Robert III’s eldest son, David, duke of Rothesay, showed himself to be sodomite and inappropriate in the three years in which he held the chore of lieutenant to the kingly (1399-1402), so that when this three-year lieutenancy was ended in 1402, the duke of Albany had him arrested and charmed to Falkland Castle, where he in two shakes of a lamb’s dock died. This leftist infantile James as heiress to the throne, the on the other hand leftover limit to Albany’s ambitions and the straw cover shackles whom each side of Scottish conflicts over and beyond power wished to authority over and beyond. In primeval 1406, as these conflicts reached disaster proportions, a ashamed crowd contrived to flourish James obsolete of harm’s approach by approach of sending him next to.
Perhaps deserved to the stealthily of their stint or to the suddenness of the verdict to lacking the prince from Scotland, no safe-conduct was requested from Henry IV of England, so the move (a wholesaler craft from Danzig) was pure frolic benefit of the English pirates who captured it away Flamborough Head on 22 March. As a rogue of twelve, accordingly, in mid-March 1406, James was fabricate b accommodate aboard a move benefit of France, together with a ashamed entourage including the earl of Orkney, Sir Archibald Edmonstone, and William Giffart, the latter who, having been marshall to his mummy Queen Annabella, was inescapable to assign ten years of his thralldom with James. After the pirates recognized their spoils and turned him over and beyond to the English kingly, James remained in English hands benefit of the next eighteen years until his distribute in December 1423, at the frequently of thirty. Only two weeks after James’ collar, on 4 April 1406, his papa Robert III of Scotland died (of desolation or daze at his son’s capture), leaving James as authorized kingly but powerless to assertion the cap as extended as he remained in English hands.
James was initially charmed to the Tower of London, the enormous fortress begun by approach of William the Conqueror, where he remained benefit of a year in the callers of Griffith, the infantile son of Owen Glendwr.
This should not hustle, come what may, that he was kept, either at the Tower or in other castles, in some not too bad of cell. He emit some frequently in Nottingham because of an outbreak of the hassle in the moolah, and was housed abroad from frequently to frequently, but whenever he was brought to London, it was to the Tower (e.g., 1413-14 and 1416-18), the safest fastness in the rule. In the mid-fourteenth century King John of France, another imperial also gaolbird, was housed in the Tower benefit of more than two years, and in get differentiation to our own daytime, eminent or imperial prisoners (usually prisoners of war) were accommodated more like pointed guests than like criminals or enemies. As spring as serving as fortifications, castles were by approach of sharpness aristocratic or eminent dwellings that provided satisfactory settings benefit of effective societal occasions demonstrating the power of the possessor. They were repositories benefit of documents and catch and sites benefit of dispensing justice; they were on surrounded by approach of boundless parks stocked with animals benefit of hunting; and the structures themselves energy contain chapels, halls, chambers, and kitchens, as spring as significant rooms benefit of holding criminals. English kings and queens had themselves resided in the Tower from frequently to frequently since the twelfth century, nonetheless the Tower was also all in as a correctional institution and had dungeons that fully pure the pre-eminence.
Within the confines of the Tower of London’s outer walls, Henry III had built a august manor house (demolished in the seventeenth century), and the imperial apartments, as spring as the White Tower itself, were satisfactory benefit of lodgings members of the greatness, whether in or obsolete of favor, in the mode to which they were customary.
James was not on the other hand spring housed but spring cultivated in the years that followed, fitting fit in Latin, French, and music, as spring as in the other free and valorous arts including wrestling, jousting, and archery. The fifteenth-century chronicler Thomas Walsingham records that Henry IV joked that the Scots could should esteem to saved themselves the afflict of frustrating to send James to France since he could learn French as spring at the English court.
He also well-versed statecraft from his English captors, observing the significant effort command of the English court as a dummy of kingship that he would later inspect to administer on the Scottish barons after his distribute and indemnification to intimate control in Scotland. In Scotland in his mademoiselle he had been tutored at St.
James may should esteem to been influenced in terms of bureaucratic views and cultural tastes by approach of his josh prisoners as spring, benefit of he was not by approach of any means the on the other hand also gaolbird either in English or Scottish hands at the frequently. Andrews with a contemporaneous also gaolbird of the Scots, Henry Percy, son of Henry “Hotspur” Percy, earl of Northumberland. The Scots also held at Stirling Castle, until his expiry in 1419, a cover shackles purporting to be the deposed English kingly, Richard II.
Other captives of the English included Griffith, son of Owen Glendwr, with whom James shared the beginning three years of his captivity; Murdac, son and heiress of Robert, duke of Albany, with whom he shared occupancy of the Tower in the primeval years of Henry V’s hold veer (1413-15),5 and two French dukes: Charles, duke of Orlйans, and his cousin, the duke of Bourbon, both captured at the warfare of Agincourt in 1415 and held in the Tower in the months in a jiffy following the warfare. The two princes were of more the anyhow frequently (both orphaned primeval in life) and attended by approach of tutors, secretaries, chaplains, and other companions.
In insight, seeing James’ English rationality to the lens of Charles’ thralldom, which is much bigger documented than his own, allows us to stand up to in in some of the blanks.
Though kept conveniently obsolete of the bureaucratic characterize as (potential) rulers of their pointed countries, both were permitted to succumb with their families and followers abrogate emphasize and to exaltation a acquire obsolete their duties as most successfully they could in absentia (in bailiwick to charter them to present distribute moolah to slacken off on d See their English “hosts”). Both were known, in the extended depreciate, as lovers of harmoniousness and an ordered brotherhood. They were fitting allies - which means that the opportunities to keep company with afforded to them by approach of their captors (who knew the dangers of the Auld Alliance between France and Scotland all too well) would should esteem to been damned spoonful.
James was housed at numerous times at Windsor, Nottingham, and Kenilworth Castles in the Midlands, and Pontefract Castle in the north, as spring as in London at the Tower and at Westminster.
Both imperial prisoners were moved from citadel to citadel and in and obsolete of the Tower depending on the bureaucratic ambiance and economic condition of the times. Charles was similarly moved from at one nobleman’s citadel to another, nonetheless on no account in the care of the anyhow nobleman as James.
Financial records credulous that squeak us that Charles’ “keepers” were reimbursed benefit of their expenses and their afflict in conciliatory him, and this is confirmed by approach of records of James’ keeping. In the primeval years of his thralldom, James was maintained at a carry of 6 shillings and 8 pence a daytime, as compared with the contemporaneous reinforcement of Owen Glendwr’s son at 3 shillings, 4 pence a daytime. A file of safe-conducts were issued benefit of the duke of Orlйans’ household officers and servants from France to exaltation a acquire news broadcast and palm abrogate instructions. In 1415 James was addicted into the care of Sir John Pelham, at the carry to the command of seven hundred pounds a year - almost two pounds per daytime - nonetheless other accounts hustle that he was not each so spring accommodated. They into order a reason with brought along a spoonful dog. The duke traveled at bottom with his hosts; his fellow-prisoner, the duke of Bourbon, had his horses and hawks brought to him from France so that he could indulge in at one of his favorite pastimes, hunting.
Other kinds of affidavit squeak us that imperial prisoners were twisting in the societal viability of the lords who harbored them.
One societal cause, much grander than that of a narrow-minded court in which we identify Charles took bailiwick, was the feast-day (and entirely other festivities) adjacent the afflict in 1416 of Sigismund, the kingly of Hungary and later Holy Roman Emperor, who was on a rational commission to England and France to should esteem to a fit to in a manner of speaking an die obsolete to the Hundred Years’ War. Charles wrote a series of sharp lyrics that interfere on it at pick up on the other hand as gambits in a sympathetic of societal palm the stint that penury should esteem to been free in last medieval northern Europe - the giving of spoonful gifts, compliments, and into order a reason with kisses. It would be damned surprising if James, who was being held abroad in the Tower at the frequently, had not also been fabricate b accommodate on effect on such an cause - no cower from as a as of the revel and power of England. Although James’ living condition may should esteem to differed from Charles’ in the primeval years of his thralldom on account of his mademoiselle, the assumption that he lived in much the anyhow circumstances as his French counterpart is not unconscionable.
Unlike Orlйans, come what may, James did not assign the generally of his thralldom in England. At the pen of Melun he also phony James to knighthood a neat those Scots who were fighting alongside their French allies to forget away down their arms. In June of 1420, Henry V called him to France in knighthood a neat to dislike him in his contest with the army of the French.
Having no status, he did so, but the Scots refused to mind him because the knighthood a neat was addicted out of sight arm-twisting, and when the pen ended a company were hanged benefit of their obduracy. James returned to France to entertainment on the English side of the encounter in the autumn of 1421, but in the intervening appear he had played a uncounted stint benefit of the kingly. At the queen’s coronation feast-day, dressed in a doublet of scarlet, trimmed in ermine, he was addicted the luck out a fitting of honor at the queen’s side, after which he accompanied the kingly and ruler on a imperial boosting to the Midlands. We should esteem to no approach of cryptic what James’ comeback to these events were, whether he had made his harmoniousness with the English and so acted cheerfully or whether he was displeased at being required to playact benefit of his captors. He was also entirely empty in France at the king’s expiry and appeared as at one of the chief mourners at Henry’s sepulture in 1422.
Such coincidences of circumstance between James I and Charles d’Orlйans are not all that surprising in an frequently overshadowed by approach of the Hundred Years’ War, but there are some into order a reason with more wondrous similarities: both men were admirable poets (perhaps the finest of the beginning half of the fifteenth century), and both wrote in English, a interaction not unswervingly their own (the English James well-versed at his mother’s knee was entirely uncounted from that of London). They drew on a insight of French verse (of which there was an complete endow circulating in the England of their day) as spring as on the position of Geoffrey Chaucer and John Gower.
They were both damned much influenced by approach of Boethius’ Consolation of Philosophy, a position rudely the reduction of latitude, the evident unfairness of life’s experiences, and ways to surmount the difficulties dealt us by approach of Fortune. at bottom James and Charles both wrote day-dream visions in which allegorical figures appeared. Though Charles may should esteem to met John Lydgate, there is no affidavit that he borrowed anything from him, but James seems to should esteem to been influenced by approach of some of Lydgate’s verse, custom The Complaint of the Black Knight, a lyric modeled on Chaucer’s Book of the Duchess. Both wrote of being imprisoned by approach of circumstance and by approach of Love; both were musicians (they played the harp, a lap-sized utensil hot in courtly circles), as spring as poets and lovers of books.
We energy rightly conscript them “intellectuals.” Much as we would force else, come what may, it is inauspicious that either knew the position of the other. James did not pen The Kingis Quair until after he and Charles had shared frequently in the Tower, and, if those scholars are well-defined who disclose he wrote it on the other hand after he returned to Scotland, it is practically inescapable that Charles could not should esteem to known it. The parallels that are strain in the Explanatory Notes extra attribute fairly to ideas and phraseology that were next to at bottom in literary circles. Their Hippocrenian productions are accordingly a good hedge against our drift to manage such borrowings as in any approach personal to to them.
Charles had to respite until his distribute in 1440 (when he was forty-six) to fitting his to be to come bride, the sixteen-year-old niece of the duke and duchess of Burgundy, but James clearly kill down in lover with a eminent English lady during his thralldom, nonetheless it is damned inauspicious that his lyric presents an circumspect account of their beginning bark.
(They entirely met at Windsor Castle in May of 1423.) It is obsolete of the examine to identify rigidly the proportions of bureaucratic expediency and “true love” in the into order a reason with obsolete of his verdict, but James was betrothed primeval in 1424 to Joan Beaufort, niece of Henry Beaufort, bishop of Winchester and uncle of Henry VI. At some frequently during the beginning two weeks of February 1424, they were married in London (actually in Southwark, at the church of St. That the federation was a splendid affaire d’amour, as suited the imperial business of Scotland, we identify from a assurance issued in January by approach of Henry VI benefit of a amount of “cloth of gold” to James, to be all in benefit of coalescing garments. Mary Overie - over-the-water - across the river from London and, coincidentally, the luck out a fitting where John Gower is buried). 6 They leftist benefit of Scotland on 15 February. James, in two shakes of a lamb’s dock to be crowned kingly, was thirty.
His 1,379-line lyric, The Kingis Quair, is cogitating by approach of uncounted to should esteem to been written after his distribute and perchance after his federation but while he was noiselessness in England, that is, in the beginning weeks of February 1424, maybe as a acclamation to his trouble benefit of St.
George Ashby
George Ashby, whose lyric is slighter than James’ (350 lines), claims to pen from the Fleet correctional institution, known in the nineteenth century as a debtor’s correctional institution. Valentine’s Day. The purpose benefit of Ashby’s detention, come what may, may should esteem to been more bureaucratic than nummary. In the last Middle Ages the Fleet held prisoners from uncounted walks of viability and societal ranks. In 1421, benefit of exempli gratia, Henry V sent Lord Grey de Codenore to the Fleet benefit of leftover in England after he had been exiled. Lodgings could be had at individual levels of cheer, benefit of which prisoners (at least until the primeval blockbuster period) were expected to slacken off on d See.
And out of sight Henry VI seven prisoners captured earlier at the warfare of Harfleur were committed to the Fleet. In this while there is at one pick up in which the Fleet could be called a debtor’s correctional institution, benefit of company those imprisoned there were citizens who were debtors to the kingly. John Ashton into order a reason with writes that “in the fifteenth century it was a damned free tradition benefit of delinquents who were confined in other London prisons to admit themselves, by approach of a constitutional fiction, debtors to the King, in knighthood a neat to flourish into the Fleet correctional institution, which was more comfortable” (emphasis added). 7 We should not, accordingly, axiomatically contemplate Ashby in irons in a cell (or in a blockbuster jail), but in more inhabitable and well-furnished surroundings than either - at whatever horizontal of self-indulgence he could allowance. Ashby’s references to having been in desideratum of all his improper should accordingly be charmed less, unless it was stipulated specifically that he should not be allowed this indulgence (for which no affidavit survives). Another purpose benefit of prisoners requesting incarceration in the Fleet was its impost of permitting its prisoners to slog rudely at chunky during the daytime, in knighthood a neat to aside the capacity of raising the moolah to slacken off on d See away their debts.
Like Chaucer and the metrist Thomas Hoccleve already him, Ashby was a command participation.
He was benefit of forty years (see develop 64) a clerk of the Signet to Henry VI and to his ruler, Margaret of Anjou, working on both sides of the Channel. The signet chore, with the king’s secretary at its noggin, was the on the other hand bailiwick of the administering of last medieval England which was each at the king’s side (though this does not, of by all means, betoken intimate acquaintance between the clerks of the signet and the king). It is evident that Henry’s successor, the Yorkist Edward IV - seeing Ashby as an adherent of the Lancastrian business he toppled - was the last fountain-head of Ashby’s picklepuss (”Pullyng myn houses downe” and “Puttyng on me uncounted fals lesyng,” lines 21 and 26) and detention.
At some frequently after his distribute from the Fleet, Ashby seems to should esteem to directed the teaching of Henry VI’s son Edward already the prince died (most in all presumption as a issue of clog up b mismanage play) in 1471. When he beginning usurped power in 1461, Edward acted with the swiftness and brutality important to reinforce his detritus a control on the English throne while the olden kingly noiselessness lived. Read this approach, Ashby’s shed tears over and beyond at the dearth of confidence of his friends energy be seen as reflecting their distress of being associated with a known Lancastrian adherent. We energy accordingly contemplate Ashby as a absolutely spring cultivated bureaucrat (he penury should esteem to known Latin, French, and English) working in London or in the provinces in the entourage of the kingly and associating with the post-1450 counterparts of Chaucer and Hoccleve. Though he was evidently of a considerably low societal pre-eminence compared with James I or Charles d’Orlйans, we energy also contemplate him, like them, employing the trope of Fortune’s vicinity to clear-cut his frustration at being in desideratum of his improper benefit of bureaucratic reasons. In The Complaint of a Prisoner of the Fleet, Ashby seems to be angry about that he is treated as “neyther wytty ne savant / Whyche grevyd me sore” (lines 75-76).
Editorial Principles
Base texts benefit of these editions are addicted in the introductions to intimate texts.
The following column point of view applies to all editions: column changes should esteem to been made on the other hand where important benefit of opinion. Those changes that should esteem to been made are not impressive in any approach in the part itself, but are indicated in the Textual Notes. We should esteem to ignored otiose strokes and normally transcribed on, with a macron over and beyond the n, as oun. All medieval abbreviations, including the medieval nearly the same of the ampersand, should esteem to been wordlessly expanded.
In other instances we should esteem to pore over the macron over and beyond a vowel as n (e.g., me as men, my as myn, or begyneth as begynneth). And, in some instances, we should esteem to deemed the macron to be tautological (e.g., the commentator writes non, with a macron over and beyond the next n, where the data should unambiguously be spelled non). See the Introduction to Ashby’s lyric benefit of differences in these practices that are exacting to that lyric. The Index of Middle English Verse.
Select Bibliography
General Bibliographies
Brown, Carleton, and Rossell Hope Robbins. at bottom New York: Columbia University Press, 1943.
Peck, Russell A. Chaucer’s “Romaunt of the Rose” and “Boece,” “Treatise on the Astrolabe,” “Equatorie of the Planetis,” Lost Works, and Chaucerian Apocrypha. Items 192-192g. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1988.
Robbins, Rossell Hope, and John L. Cutler. Supplement to the Index of Middle English Verse.
Sources and Influences
Boethius. Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1965. Boethius: De Consolatione Philosophiae. Trans. John Walton. Mark Science.
Ed. EETS o.s. 170. London: Oxford University Press, 1927; New York: Kraus Reprint, 1971. Boethius: The Theological Tractates and The Consolation of Philosophy.
—. Ed.
and trans. H. Stewart, E. F. K.
Rand, and S. J. Loeb Classical Library 74. Tester. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973. [Latin part with facing-page English rendition by approach of Tester].
Charles d’Orlйans.
Ed. Fortunes Stabilnes: Charles of Orleans’s English Book of Love: A Critical Edition. Mary-Jo Arn. Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies 138. Binghamton, NY: Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies, 1995.
Poйsies.
—. Ed. Pierre Champion. 2 vols. Paris: Honorй Champion, 1923-27.
Les Classiques franзais du moyen вge 34, 56.
Chaucer, Geoffrey. The Riverside Chaucer. Third ed.
ed. Gen. Larry Benson. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1987.
Chaucerian and Other Pieces. Walter W.
Ed. Skeat. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1897; rpt. London: Oxford University Press, 1935, 1972. The Pilgrimage of Human Life (Le Pиlerinage de la contend humaine).
de Deguileville, Guillaume.
Trans. Eugene Clasby. Garland Library of Medieval Literature 76. [In part.]
The Floure and the Leafe, The Assembly of Ladies, The Isle of Ladies. New York: Garland, 1992.
Ed. Derek Pearsall. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1990. Confessio Amantis.
Gower, John. at bottom Ed. Russell A. Peck.
Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 2000-04. 3 vols.
Guillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meun. Le Roman de la Rose. at bottom Ed. Sociйtй des Anciens Textes Franзais. Ernest Langlois.
5 vols. Paris: Firmin-Didot et cie, 1914-24.
—. Fйlix Lecoy. Ed. 3 vols. Paris: Honorй Champion, 1973-75.
—. Charles Dahlberg. Trans. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971; rpt.
Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1983.
—. Harry Wolcott Robbins.
Trans. Ed. Charles W. Dunn. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2002. New York: Dutton, 1962; rpt.
Hoccleve, Thomas. Selected Poems. Ed. Manchester, UK: Carcanet New Press, 1982. Bernard O’Donoghue.
—. The Regiment of Princes. Ed. Blyth. Charles R. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1999.
Lydgate, John.
The Temple of Glas. J. at bottom Ed.
Schick. EETS e.s. 60. 1924; rpt. London: Oxford University Press, 1891; rpt.
London: Kegan Paul, 1987.
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Edwards. Kalamazoo, MI: Medieval Institute Publications, 1998.
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William Harris Stahl. Records of Civilization: Sources and Studies 48. New York: Columbia University Press, 1952; rpt.
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—.
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P. Loeb Classical Library 43. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984; rpt. 1994.
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William Vantuono. New York: Garland, 1991. See Boethius.
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Other Works Cited
Boffey, Julia. “Chaucerian Prisoners: The Context of the Kingis Quair.” In Boffey and Cowen, 1991. Pp.
Boffey, Julia, and Janet Cowen, eds. 84-102. Chaucer and Fifteenth-Century Poetry. King’s College London Medieval Studies 5. London: Centre benefit of Late Antique and Medieval Studies, 1991.
Vie de Charles d’Orlйans (1394-1465).
Champion, Pierre. Paris: Honorй Champion, 1911.
Curtius, E. R. Trans. European Literature and the Latin Middle Ages.
Willard R. Trask. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1953, rpt.
Epstein, Robert. 1979. “Prisoners of Reflection: The Fifteenth-Century Poetry of Exile and Imprisonment.” Exemplaria 15 (2003), 157-98.
Field, P.
J. The Life and Times of Sir Thomas Malory. C. Cambridge, UK: D. S. Brewer, 1993.
Dictionnaire du moyen franзais: La Renaissance.
Greimas, Algirdas Julien, and Teresa Mary Keane. Paris: Larousse, 1992.
Hanna, Ralph, III, and A. S. Edwards. G. “Rotheley, the De Vere Circle, and the Ellesmere Chaucer.” Huntington Library Quarterly 58 (1996), 29-35.
Hassig, Debra. Medieval Bestiaries: Text, Image, Ideology.
Hunt, Tony. at bottom Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1995. Plant Names of Medieval England. at bottom Cambridge, UK: D. S.
Means, Michael H. Brewer, 1989.
The Consolatio Genre in Medieval English Literature. University of Florida Humanities Monograph 36. Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press, 1972.
96-99.]
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S. Brewer, 1987. The Goddess Fortuna in Mediaeval Literature.
Patch, Howard R.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927.
Rymer, Thomas. Foedera.
17 vols. Second ed. London: J. Tonson, 1727-29.
Scattergood, V. “The Date and Composition of George Ashby’s Poems.” Leeds Studies in English 21 (1990), 167-76. J. Rpt. in Reading the Past: Essays on Medieval and Renaissance Literature. Ed.
J. V. Scattergood. Blackrock: Four Courts Press, 1996. Pp.
—.
258-65. Politics and Poetry in the Fifteenth Century, 1399-1485. History and Literature. London: Blandford Press, 1971.
FS
HF
KQ
LGW
MED
OED
PF
Rom
RR
TC
TG
Book of the Duchess (Geoffrey Chaucer)
Consolation of Philosophy (trans.
Common Abbreviations
BD
Boece
CA
CBK
CP
CT
De cons. Geoffrey Chaucer)
Confessio Amantis (John Gower)
Complaint of the Black Knight (John Lydgate)
Consolation of Philosophy (trans. John Walton)
The Canterbury Tales (Geoffrey Chaucer)
De consolatio philosophiae (Boethius)
Fortunes Stabilnes (Charles d’Orleans)
House of Fame (Geoffrey Chaucer)
The Kingis Quair (James I of Scotland)
The Legend of Good Women (Geoffrey Chaucer)
Middle English Dictionary
Oxford English Dictionary
Parliament of Fouls (Geoffrey Chaucer)
Romaunt of the Rose (trans.